References by module
- Introduction
- Trial design
- Pharmacokinetic modelling
- Pregnant and breastfeeding women
- Coinfections
- Acceptability
- Community engagement
- Target product profiles
- Product commercialization
- Regulatory filing
- Pharmacovigilance
- Conclusion
Introduction
1. UNAIDS data 2017. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2017 (http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2017/2017_data_book, accessed 22 May 2018).
2. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach – second edition. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/arv-2016/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
3. Prevention gap report, July 2016. Geneva: UNAIDS, 2016 (http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2016/prevention-gap, accessed 22 May 2018).
4. Penazzato M, Amzel A, Abrams EJ, Kiragu K, Essajee S, Mukui I et al. Pediatric treatment scale-up: the unfinished agenda of the Global Plan. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75(Suppl. 1):S59–65.
5. Penazzato M, Gnanashanmugam D, Rojo P, Lallemant M, Lewis LL, Rocchi F et al. Optimizing research to speed up availability of pediatric antiretroviral drugs and formulations. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:1597–1603.
6. Penazzato M, Palladino C, Sugandhi N, Paediatric ARV Drug Optimization 3 Meeting participants. Prioritizing the most needed formulations to accelerate paediatric antiretroviral therapy scale-up. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2017;12:369–76.
7. Paediatric Antiretroviral Drug Optimization (PADO) meeting 3. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017 (http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/meetingreports/paediatric-arv-optimization-pado3/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
8. Penazzato M, Lee J, Capparelli E, Essajee S, Ford N, Ojoo A et al. Optimizing drugs to reach treatment targets for children and adolescents living with HIV. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18(Suppl. 6):20270.
9. WHO generic tool for assessing paediatric ARV dosing. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018 (http://www.who.int/hiv/paediatric/generictool/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
10. Inter-Agency Task Team (IATT) for Prevention and Treatment of HIV Infection in Pregnant Women, Mother and Children. Policy brief: IATT paediatric ARV formulary and limited-use list: 2016 update. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund and World Health Organization; 2016 (http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/paediatric/iatt-paediatric-hiv-2016/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
11. UNITAID, Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi) and Medicines Patent Pool (MPP). Paediatric HIV Treatment Initiative (PHTI): closing the treatment gap through innovation. Geneva: Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative; 2016 (https://www.dndi.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PaediatricHIVTreatmentInitiative.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
12. Penazzato M, Lewis L, Watkins M, Prabhu V, Pascual F, Auton M et al. Shortening the decade-long gap between adult and paediatric drug formulations: a new framework based on the HIV experience in low- and middle-income countries. J Int AIDS Soc. 2018;21(Suppl. 1) (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/29485727, accessed 22 May 2018).
Trial design
1. Penazzato M, Lee J, Capparelli E, et al. Optimizing drugs to reach treatment targets for children and adolescents living with HIV. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18:20270.
2. Penazzato M, Gnanashanmugam M, Rojo P, et al. Optimizing Research to Speed Up Availability of Pediatric Antiretroviral Drugs and Formulations. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017;64:1597-1603.
3. Guideline on the clinical development of medicinal products for the treatment of HIV infection. London: European Medicines Agency; 2016 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2016/07/WC500209918.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
4. General Clinical Pharmacology Considerations for Pediatric Studies for Drugs and Biological Products: Guidance for Industry 2014. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidances/ucm425885.pdf. Accessed November 13, 2017.
5. Vassal G, Zwaan CM, Ashley D, Le Deley MC, Hargrave D, Blanc P et al. New drugs for children and adolescents with cancer: the need for novel development pathways. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14:e117–24.
6. Dunne J, Rodriguez WJ, Murphy MD, Beasley BN, Burckart GJ, Filie JD et al. Extrapolation of adult data and other data in pediatric drug-development programs. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e1242–9.
7. Musiime V, Kendall L, Bakeera-Kitaka S, Snowden WB, Odongo F, Thomason M et al. Pharmacokinetics and acceptability of once- versus twice-daily lamivudine and abacavir in HIV type-1-infected Ugandan children in the ARROW Trial. Antivir Ther. 2010;15:1115–24.
8. Bastiaans DE, Forcat S, Lyall H, Cressey TR, Hansudewechakul R, Kanjanavanit S et al. Pharmacokinetics of pediatric lopinavir/ritonavir tablets in children when administered twice daily according to FDA weight bands. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2014;33:301–5.
9. Paediatric European Network for Treatment of AIDS. Once vs. twice-daily lopinavir/ritonavir in HIV-1-infected children. AIDS. 2015;29:2447–57.
10. Persaud D, Palumbo P, Ziemniak C, Chen J, Ray SC, Hughes M et al. Early archiving and predominance of nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-resistant HIV-1 among recently infected infants born in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:1402–10.
11. Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Hoover DR, Biggar RJ, Broadhead RL, Cassol S et al. Association of HIV-1 load and CD4 lymphocyte count with mortality among untreated African children over one year of age. AIDS. 2000;14:453–9.
12. Zheng L, Rosenkranz SL, Taiwo B, Para MF, Eron JJ Jr, Hughes MD. The design of single-arm clinical trials of combination antiretroviral regimens for treatment-naive HIV-infected patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2013;29:652–7.
13. Ford D, Turner R, Turkova A, et al. Optimizing clinical trials design to maximise evidence generation in paediatric HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. In press.
14. Salem F, Ogungbenro K, Vajjah P, Johnson TN, Aarons L, Rostami-Hodjegan A. Precision criteria to derive sample size when designing pediatric pharmacokinetic studies: which measure of variability should be used? J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;54:311–7.
15.Wang Y, Jadhav PR, Lala M, Gobburu JV. Clarification on precision criteria to derive sample size when designing pediatric pharmacokinetic studies. J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;52:1601-6.
16. Lewis LL. Assessing pre-market safety in pediatric drug development: the division of anti-viral products (DAVP) perspective. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2014.
17. Nachman S, Alvero C, Acosta EP, Teppler H, Homony B, Graham B et al. Pharmacokinetics and 48-week safety and efficacy of raltegravir for oral suspension in human immunodeficiency virus type-1-infected children 4 weeks to 2 years of age. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2015;4:e76–83.
18. Nachman S, Zheng N, Acosta EP, Teppler H, Homony B, Graham B et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and 48-week efficacy of oral raltegravir in HIV-1-infected children aged 2 through 18 years. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:413–22.
19. Ruel TD, Kakuru A, Ikilezi G, Mwangwa F, Dorsey G, Rosenthal PJ et al. Virologic and immunologic outcomes of HIV-infected Ugandan children randomized to lopinavir/ritonavir or nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65:535–41.
20. Mulenga V, Musiime V, Kekitiinwa A, Cook AD, Abongomera G, Kenny J et al. Abacavir, zidovudine, or stavudine as paediatric tablets for African HIV-infected children (CHAPAS-3): an open-label, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:169–79.
21. Wason J, Stallard N, Bowden J, Jennison C. A multistage drop-the-losers design for multi-arm clinical trials. Statist Methods Med Res. 2017;26:508–24.
22. Pushpakom SP, Taylor C, Kolamunnage-Dona R, Spowart C, Vora J, García-Fiñana M et al. Telmisartan and insulin resistance in HIV (TAILoR): protocol for a dose-ranging phase II randomised open-labelled trial of telmisartan as a strategy for the reduction of insulin resistance in HIV-positive individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy. BMJ Open. 2015;5:e009566.
23. Kekitiinwa A, Cook A, Nathoo K, Mugyenyi P, Nahirya-Ntege P, Bakeera-Kitaka S et al. Routine versus clinically driven laboratory monitoring and first-line antiretroviral therapy strategies in African children with HIV (ARROW): a 5-year open-label randomised factorial trial. Lancet. 2013;381:1391–403.
24. Perriat D, Balzer L, Hayes R, Lockman S, Walsh F, Ayles H et al. Comparative assessment of five trials of universal HIV testing and treatment in sub-Saharan Africa. J Int AIDS Soc. 2018;21.
25. Palumbo P, Lindsey JC, Hughes MD, Cotton MF, Bobat R, Meyers T et al. Antiretroviral treatment for children with peripartum nevirapine exposure. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:1510–20.
26. Violari A, Lindsey JC, Hughes MD, Mujuru HA, Barlow-Mosha L, Kamthunzi P et al. Nevirapine versus ritonavir-boosted lopinavir for HIV-infected children. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2380–9.
27. United States Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection: developing antiretroviral drugs for treatment guidance for industry. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration 2015 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guidances/ucm355128.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
28. Wagner C, Zhao P, Arya V, Mullick C, Struble K, Au S. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling for predicting the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on darunavir or lopinavir exposure coadministered with ritonavir. J Clin Pharmacol. 2017;57:1295–304.
29. Samant TS, Mangal N, Lukacova V, Schmidt S. Quantitative clinical pharmacology for size and age scaling in pediatric drug development: a systematic review. J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;55:1207–17.
30. Zhou W, Johnson TN, Bui KH, et al. Predictive performance of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PB) modeling of drugs extensively metabolized by major cytochrome P450s in children. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2017.
31. Michelet R, Bocxlaer JV, Vermeulen A. physiologically based pharmacokinetic in preterm and term neonates: a review. Curr Pharm Des. 2017.
32. Weiss AR, Hayes-Lattin B, Kutny MA, Stock W, Stegenga K, Freyer DR. Inclusion of adolescents and young adults in cancer clinical trials. Semin Oncol Nurs. 2015;31:197–205.
33. Duke T, Mgone CS. Measles: not just another viral exanthem. Lancet. 2003;361:763–73.
34. Clarke DF, Acosta EP, Rizk ML, Bryson YJ, Spector SA, Mofenson LM et al. Raltegravir pharmacokinetics in neonates following maternal dosing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:310-315.
35. Baiardi P, Giaquinto C, Girotto S, Manfredi C, Ceci A. Innovative study design for paediatric clinical trials. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;67(Suppl. 1):109–15.
36. Curtin F, Heritier S. The role of adaptive trial designs in drug development. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2017;10:727–36.
37. FDA critical path opportunities report 2006. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2006 (http://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20180125142845/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/ScienceResearch/SpecialTopics/CriticalPathInitiative/CriticalPathOpportunitiesReports/UCM077254.pdf).
38. Guidance for Industry Adaptive Design Clinical Trials for Drugs and Biologics 2010. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2010 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM201790.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
39. Gallo P, Anderson K, Chuang-Stein C, Dragalin V, Gaydos B, Krams M et al. Viewpoints on the FDA draft adaptive designs guidance from the PhRMA working group. J Biopharm Stat. 2010;20:1115–24.
40. James ND, Sydes MR, Clarke NW, Mason MD, Dearnaley DP, Spears MR et al. Addition of docetaxel, zoledronic acid, or both to first-line long-term hormone therapy in prostate cancer (STAMPEDE): survival results from an adaptive, multiarm, multistage, platform randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016;387:1163–77.
41. Parmar MK, Sydes MR, Cafferty FH, Choodari-Oskooei B1, Langley RE1, Brown L et al. Testing many treatments within a single protocol over 10 years at MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL: multi-arm, multistage platform, umbrella and basket protocols. Clin Trials. 2017;14:451–61.
42. Cook T, DeMets DL. Review of draft FDA adaptive design guidance. J Biopharm Stat. 2010;20:1132–42.
43. Chow SC, Corey R. Benefits, challenges and obstacles of adaptive clinical trial designs. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2011;6:79.
44. Bwakura-Dangarembizi M, Kendall L, Bakeera-Kitaka S, Nahirya-Ntege P, Keishanyu R, Nathoo K et al. A randomized trial of prolonged co-trimoxazole in HIV-infected children in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:41–53.
45. Lallemant M, Amzal B, Urien S, Le Coeur S. Antiretroviral intensification to prevent intrapartum HIV transmission in late comers. 8th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention, 19–22 July 2015, Vancouver, Canada (MOAC0204).
46. French N, Nakiyingi J, Lugada E, Watera C, Whitworth JA, Gilks CF. Increasing rates of malarial fever with deteriorating immune status in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults. AIDS. 2001;15:899–906.
47. Whitworth J, Morgan D, Quigley M, Smith A, Mayanja B, Eotu H et al. Effect of HIV-1 and increasing immunosuppression on malaria parasitaemia and clinical episodes in adults in rural Uganda: a cohort study. Lancet. 2000;356:1051–6.
48. Grimwade K, French N, Mbatha DD, Zungu DD, Dedicoat M, Gilks CF. Childhood malaria in a region of unstable transmission and high human immunodeficiency virus prevalence. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:1057–63.
49. Moriuchi M, Moriuchi H, Mon HM, Kanbara H. Dichotomous effects of Plasmodium falciparum antigens on expression of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coreceptors and on infectability of CD4 cells by HIV. J Infect Dis. 2002;186:1194–7.
50. Babiker A, Castro nee Green H, Compagnucci A, Fiscus S, Giaquinto C, Gibb DM et al. First-line antiretroviral therapy with a protease inhibitor versus non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor and switch at higher versus low viral load in HIV-infected children: an open-label, randomised phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11:273–83.
51. Penazzato M, Palladino C, Sugandhi N. Prioritizing the most needed formulations to accelerate paediatric antiretroviral therapy scale-up. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2017;12:369–76.
Pharmacokinetic modelling
1. Anderson BJ, Holford NHG. Understanding dosing: children are small adults, neonates are immature children. Arch Dis Child. 2013;98:737–44.
2. Smits A, Annaert P, Allegaert K. Drug disposition and clinical practice in neonates: cross talk between developmental physiology and pharmacology. Int J Pharm. 2013;452:8–13.
3. Liu T, Ghafoori P, Gobburu JVS. Allometry is a reasonable choice in pediatric drug development. J Clin Pharmacol. 2017;57:469–75.
4. Clarke DF, Penazzato M, Capparelli E, Cressey TR, Siberry G, Sugandhi N et al. Prevention and treatment of HIV infection in neonates: evidence base for existing WHO dosing recommendations and implementation considerations. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018;11:83–93.
5. Riegelman S, Collier P. The application of statistical moment theory to the evaluation of in vivo dissolution time and absorption time. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1980;8:509–34.
6. Aarons L. Population pharmacokinetics: theory and practice. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;32:669–70.
7. Zhao P, Zhang L, Grillo J, Liu Q, Bullock JM, Moon YJ et al. Applications of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling and simulation during regulatory review. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011;89:259–67.
8. Wang Y, Jadhav PR, Lala M, Gobburu JV. Clarification on precision criteria to derive sample size when designing pediatric pharmacokinetic studies. J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;52:1601–6.
9. Development of an interactive tool to support paediatric trial design. Brisbane: Model Answers; 2018 (https://interactive.model-a.com.au/development-interactive-tool-support-paediatric-trial-design, accessed 22 May 2018).
10. Edginton AN, Schmitt W, Willmann S. Development and evaluation of a generic physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2006;45:1013–34.
11. Howie SRC. Blood sample volumes in child health research: review of safe limits. Bull World Health Organ. 2011;89:46–53.
12. Aarons L, Ogungbenro K. Optimal design of pharmacokinetic studies. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2010;106:250–5.
13. Anderson BJ, Holford NHG. Mechanism-based concepts of size and maturity in pharmacokinetics. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008;48:303–32.
14. Denti P, Sugandhi N, Cressey TR, Mirochnick M, Capparelli EV, Penazzato M. An easy-to-use paediatric dosing tool: one mg/kg dose does not fit all. 24th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, MA, USA, 4–7 March 2017 (Abstract 809; http://www.croiconference.org/sessions/easy-use-paediatric-dosing-tool-one-mgkg-dose-does-not-fit-all, accessed 22 May 2018).
15. Björkman S. Prediction of drug disposition in infants and children by means of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling: theophylline and midazolam as model drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59:691–704.
16. Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, Blowey DL, Leeder JS, Kauffman RE. Developmental pharmacology – drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1157–67.
17. Lu H, Rosenbaum S. Developmental pharmacokinetics in pediatric populations. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2014;19:262–76.
18. Clarke DF, Wong RJ, Wenning L, Stevenson DK, Mirochnick M. Raltegravir in vitro effect on bilirubin binding. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:978–80.
19. Ahlfors CE. Unbound bilirubin associated with kernicterus: a historical approach. J Pediatr. 2000;137:540–4.
20. Schreiner C, Ahlfors C, Wong R, Stevenson D, Clarke D, Mirochnick M. In vitro study on the effect of maraviroc and dolutegravir on bilirubin-albumin binding. Pediatr Infect Dis J. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000002011. [Epub ahead of print]
21. Chokephaibulkit K, Cressey TR, Capparelli E, Sirisanthana V, Muresan P, Hongsiriwon S et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of a new paediatric fixed-dose combination of zidovudine/lamivudine/nevirapine in HIV-infected children. Antivir Ther. 2011;16:1287–95.
22. Kasirye P, Kendall L, Adkison KK, Tumusiime C, Ssenyonga M, Bakeera-Kitaka S et al. Pharmacokinetics of antiretroviral drug varies with formulation in the target population of children with HIV-1. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2012;91:272–80.
23. Best BM, Capparelli EV, Diep H, Rossi SS, Farrell MJ, Williams E et al. Pharmacokinetics of lopinavir/ritonavir crushed versus whole tablets in children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:385–91.
24. Adkison KK, McCoig C, Wolstenholme A, Lou Y, Zhang Z, Eld A et al. Effect of sorbitol on lamivudine pharmacokinetics following administration of EPIVIR solution in adults. 24th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, MA, USA, 4–7 March 2017 (Abstract 428; http://www.croiconference.org/sessions/effect-sorbitol-3tc-pk-after-administration-lamivudine-solution-adults, accessed 22 May 2018).
25. Kekitiinwa A, Musiime V, Thomason MJ, Mirembe G, Lallemant M, Nakalanzi S et al. Acceptability of lopinavir/r pellets (minitabs), tablets and syrups in HIV-infected children. Antivir Ther. 2016;21:579–85.
26. Musiime V, Fillekes Q, Kekitiinwa A, Kendall L, Keishanyu R, Namuddu R et al. The pharmacokinetics and acceptability of lopinavir/ritonavir minitab sprinkles, tablets and syrups in African HIV-infected children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;66:1.
27. Pinto JA, Capparelli EV, Warshaw M, Zimmer B, Cressey TR, Spector SA et al. A Phase II/III trial of lopinavir/ritonavir dosed according to the WHO pediatric weight band dosing guidelines. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2018;37:329–35.
28. Svensson EM, Yngman G, Denti P, McIlleron H, Kjellsson MC, Karlsson MO. Evidence-based design of fixed-dose combinations: principles and application to pediatric anti-tuberculosis therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2018;57:591–9.
29. Bouazza N, Cressey TR, Foissac F, Bienczak A, Denti P, McIlleron H et al. Optimization of the strength of the efavirenz/lamivudine/abacavir fixed-dose combination for paediatric patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017;72:490–5.
30. McIlleron H, Ren Y, Nuttall J, Fairlie L, Rabie H, Cotton M et al. Lopinavir exposure is insufficient in children given double doses of lopinavir/ritonavir during rifampicin-based treatment for tuberculosis. Antivir Ther. 2011;16:417–21.
31. Zhang C, Denti P, Decloedt EH, Ren Y, Karlsson MO, McIlleron H. Model-based evaluation of the pharmacokinetic differences between adults and children for lopinavir and ritonavir in combination with rifampicin. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;76:741–51.
32. Clarke DF, Acosta EP, Rizk ML, Bryson YJ, Spector SA, Mofenson LM et al. Raltegravir pharmacokinetics in neonates following maternal dosing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:310–5.
33. Lommerse J, Clarke D, Chain A, Witjes H, Teppler H, Capparelli E et al. Raltegravir dosing in neonates (IMPAACT P1110) – a safe and efficacious regimen for neonates from birth to 6 weeks of age. American Conference on Pharmacometrics, Bellevue, WA, USA, 22–27 October 2016.
34. Clarke D, Acosta E, Chain A, Cababasay M, Wang J, Calabrese K et al. Raltegravir pharmacokinetics and safety in HIV-1 exposed neonates at high risk of infection (IMPAACT P1110). 17th International Workshop on Clinical Pharmacology of HIV and Hepatitis Therapy, Washington, DC, 8–10 June 2016.
35. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/arv-2016/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
Pregnant and breastfeeding women
1. Fact sheet – latest statistics on the status of the AIDS epidemic. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2018 (http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet, accessed 22 May 2018).
2. United States Department of Health and Human Services. Panel on Treatment of HIV-Infected Pregnant Women and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant HIV-1-infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV transmission in the United States. Washington (DC: AIDSInfo; 2017 (http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/PerinatalGL.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
3. Townsend CL, Byrne L, Cortina-Borja M, Thorne C, de Ruiter A, Lyall H et al. Earlier initiation of ART and further decline in mother-to-child HIV transmission rates, 2000–2011. AIDS. 2014;28:1049–57.
4. Sheffield JS, Siegel D, Mirochnick M, Heine RP, Nguyen C, Bergman KL et al. Designing drug trials: considerations for pregnant women. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(Suppl. 7):S437–44.
5. Pharmacokinetics in pregnancy – study design, data analysis, and impact on dosing and labeling. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2004 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/.../Guidances/ucm072133.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
6. Draft guidance: clinical lactation studies – study design, data analysis, and recommendations for labeling. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2005 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM072097.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
7. Gee RE, Wood SF, Schubert KG. Women's health, pregnancy, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Obstet Gynecol. 2014;123:161–5.
8. Pharmacokinetics of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected pregnant women (PANNA). Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health Clinical Center; 2008 (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00825929, accessed 22 May 2018).
9. Pharmacokinetic properties of antiretroviral and related drugs during pregnancy and postpartum. Durham (NC): IMPAACT; 2015 (http://impaactnetwork.org/studies/p1026s.asp, accessed 22 May 2018).
10. Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry international interim report for 1 January 1989 through 31 Jul 2017. Wilmington (NC): Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry; 2017 http://www.apregistry.com/forms/interim_report.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
11. Macklin R. Enrolling pregnant women in biomedical research. Lancet. 2010;375:632–3.
12. Shields KE, Lyerly AD. Exclusion of pregnant women from industry-sponsored clinical trials. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;122:1077–81.
13. Lyerly AD, Little MO, Faden R. The second wave: toward responsible inclusion of pregnant women in research. Int J Fem Approaches Bioeth. 2008;1:5–22.
14. McCormack SA, Best BM. Protecting the fetus against HIV infection: a systematic review of placental transfer of antiretrovirals. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2014;53:989–1004.
15. Anderson GD. Pregnancy-induced changes in pharmacokinetics: a mechanistic-based approach. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44:989–1008.
16. Gilbert EM, Darin KM, Scarsi KK, McLaughlin MM. Antiretroviral pharmacokinetics in pregnant women. Pharmacotherapy. 2015;35:838–55.
17. Colbers A, Greupink R, Burger D. Pharmacological considerations on the use of antiretrovirals in pregnancy. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2013;26:575–88.
18. Pariente G, Leibson T, Carls A, Adams-Webber T, Ito S, Koren G. Pregnancy-associated changes in pharmacokinetics: a systematic review. PLoS Med. 2016;13:e1002160.
19. Abduljalil K, Furness P, Johnson TN, Rostami-Hodjegan A, Soltani H. Anatomical, physiological and metabolic changes with gestational age during normal pregnancy: a database for parameters required in physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2012;51:365–96.
20. De Sousa Mendes M, Lui G, Zheng Y, Pressiat C, Hirt D, Valade E et al. A physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model to predict human fetal exposure for a drug metabolized by several CYP450 pathways. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2017;56:537–50.
21. Zhang Z, Imperial MZ, Patilea-Vrana GI, Wedagedera J, Gaohua L, Unadkat JD. Development of a novel maternal-fetal physiologically based pharmacokinetic model. I. Insights into factors that determine fetal drug exposure through simulations and sensitivity analyses. Drug Metab Dispos. 2017;45:920–38.
22. Zhang Z, Unadkat JD. Development of a novel maternal-fetal physiologically based pharmacokinetic model. II. Verification of the model for passive placental permeability drugs. Drug Metab Dispos. 2017;45:939–46.
23. Hutson JR, Garcia-Bournissen F, Davis A, Koren G. The human placental perfusion model: a systematic review and development of a model to predict in vivo transfer of therapeutic drugs. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011;90:67–76.
24. Carter AM. Animal models of human placentation – a review. Placenta. 2007;28(Suppl. A):S41–7.
25. Mirochnick M, Thomas T, Capparelli E, Zeh C, Holland D, Masaba R et al. Antiretroviral concentrations in breast-feeding infants of mothers receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AntimicrobAgents Chemother. 2009;53:1170–6.
26. Waitt CJ, Garner P, Bonnett LJ, Khoo SH, Else LJ. Is infant exposure to antiretroviral drugs during breastfeeding quantitatively important? A systematic review and meta-analysis of pharmacokinetic studies. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:1928–41.
27. Fogel J, Li Q, Taha TE, Hoover DR, Kumwenda NI, Mofenson LM et al. Initiation of antiretroviral treatment in women after delivery can induce multiclass drug resistance in breastfeeding HIV-infected infants. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:1069–76.
28. Zeh C, Weidle PJ, Nafisa L, Lwamba HM, Okonji J, Anyango E et al. HIV-1 drug resistance emergence among breastfeeding infants born to HIV-infected mothers during a single-arm trial of triple-antiretroviral prophylaxis for prevention of mother-to-child transmission: a secondary analysis. PLoS Med. 2011;8:e1000430.
29. Guidance for industry: establishing pregnancy exposure registries. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2002 (http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guidances/ucm071639.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
30. Guidance for industry. Bioavailability and bioequivalence studies submitted in NDAs or INDs – general considerations. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2014 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guidances/ucm389370.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
31. Clarke DF, Acosta EP, Rizk ML, Bryson YJ, Spector SA, Mofenson LM et al. Raltegravir pharmacokinetics in neonates following maternal dosing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:310–5.
32. van Hasselt JG, Andrew MA, Hebert MF, Tarning J, Vicini P, Mattison DR. The status of pharmacometrics in pregnancy: highlights from the 3rd American Conference on Pharmacometrics. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;74:932–9.
33. De Sousa Mendes M, Hirt D, Vinot C, Valade E, Lui G, Pressiat C et al. Prediction of human fetal pharmacokinetics using ex vivo human placenta perfusion studies and physiologically based models. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;81:646–57.
34. Schalkwijk S, Buaben AO, Freriksen JJM, Colbers AP, Burger DM, Greupink R et al. Prediction of fetal darunavir exposure by integrating human ex-vivo placental transfer and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling. Clin Pharmacokinet. doi: 10.1007/s40262-017-0583-8. [Epub ahead of print]
35. Schalkwijk S, Colbers A, Konopnicki D, Gingelmaier A, Lambert J, van der Ende M et al. Lowered rilpivirine exposure during the third trimester of pregnancy in human immunodeficiency virus type 1–infected women. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:1335–41.
36. Mulligan N, Best BM, Wang J, Capparelli EV, Stek A, Barr E et al. Dolutegravir pharmacokinetics in pregnant and postpartum women living with HIV. AIDS. 2018;32:729–37.
37. Crauwels H, Baugh B, Ryan A, Zorrilla C, Osiyemi O, Yasin S et al. Total and unbound pharmacokinetics of once-daily darunavir/ritonavir in HIV-1-infected pregnant women. 15th International Workshop on Clinical Pharmacology of HIV & Hepatitis Therapy, Washington, DC; USA, 19–21 May 2014 (Abstract O-15).
38. Best B, Capparelli E, Stek A, Acosta E, Smith E, Chakthoura N et al. Elvitegravir/cobicistat pharmacokinetics in pregnancy and postpartum. Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Seattle, WA, USA, 13–16 February 2017 (Poster 755).
39. Schalkwijk S, Greupink R, Colbers AP, Wouterse AC, Verweij VG, van Drongelen J et al. Placental transfer of the HIV integrase inhibitor dolutegravir in an ex vivo human cotyledon perfusion model. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:480–3.
Coinfections
1. Global tuberculosis report 2016. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
2. Jenkins HE, Yuen CM, Rodriguez CA, Nathavitharana RR, McLaughlin MM, Donald P et al. Mortality in children diagnosed with tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17:285–95.
3. Turkova A, Chappell E, Judd A, Goodall RL, Welch SB, Foster C et al. Prevalence, incidence, and associated risk factors of tuberculosis in children with HIV living in the UK and Ireland (CHIPS): a cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2015;2:e530–9.
4. Guidance for national tuberculosis programmes on the management of tuberculosis in children. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014 (http://www.who.int/tb/publications/childtb_guidelines/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
5. Rabie H, Decloedt EH, Garcia-Prats AJ, Cotton MF, Frigati L, Lallemant M et al. Antiretroviral treatment in HIV-infected children who require a rifamycin-containing regimen for tuberculosis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2017;18:589–98.
6. Shehu AI, Li G, Xie W, Ma X. The pregnane X receptor in tuberculosis therapeutics. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2016;12:21–30.
7. Glaeser H, Drescher S, Eichelbaum M, Fromm MF. Influence of rifampicin on the expression and function of human intestinal cytochrome P450 enzymes. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59:199–206.
8. Yamashita F, Sasa Y, Yoshida S, Hisaka A, Asai Y, Kitano H et al. Modeling of rifampicin-induced CYP3A4 activation dynamics for the prediction of clinical drug-drug interactions from in vitro data. PLoS One. 2013;8:e70330.
9. Reitz C, Coovadia A, Ko S, Meyers T, Strehlau R, Sherman G et al. Initial response to protease-inhibitor-based antiretroviral therapy among children less than 2 years of age in South Africa: effect of cotreatment for tuberculosis. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1121–31.
10. Moultrie H, McIlleron H, Sawry S, Kellermann T, Wiesner L, Kindra G et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of rifabutin in young HIV-infected children receiving rifabutin and lopinavir/ritonavir. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:543–9.
11. McIlleron H, Ren Y, Nuttall J, Fairlie L, Rabie H, Cotton M et al. Lopinavir exposure is insufficient in children given double doses of lopinavir/ritonavir during rifampicin-based treatment for tuberculosis. Antivir Ther. 2011;16:417–21.
12. Zhang C, Denti P, Decloedt EH, Ren Y, Karlsson MO, McIlleron H. Model-based evaluation of the pharmacokinetic differences between adults and children for lopinavir and ritonavir in combination with rifampicin. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;76:741–51.
13. Ren Y, Nuttall JJ, Egbers C, Eley BS, Meyers TM, Smith PJ et al. Effect of rifampicin on lopinavir pharmacokinetics in HIV-infected children with tuberculosis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;47:566–9.
14. Heidari S, Mofenson LM, Bekker L. Realization of an AIDS-free generation: ensuring sustainable treatment for children. JAMA. 2014;312:339–40.
15. Hattis D, Ginsberg G, Sonawane B, Smolenski S, Russ A, Kozlak M et al. Differences in pharmacokinetics between children and adults. II. Children's variability in drug elimination half-lives and in some parameters needed for physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling. Risk Anal. 2003;23:117–42.
16. Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, Blowey DL, Leeder JS, Kauffman RE. Developmental pharmacology – drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1157–67.
17. McIlleron HM, Schomaker M, Ren Y, Sinxadi P, Nuttall JJ, Gous H et al. Effects of rifampin-based antituberculosis therapy on plasma efavirenz concentrations in children vary by CYP2B6 genotype. AIDS. 2013;27:1933–40.
18. Dooley KE, Sayre P, Borland J, Purdy E, Chen S, Song I et al. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of the HIV integrase inhibitor dolutegravir given twice daily with rifampin or once daily with rifabutin: results of a phase 1 study among healthy subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:21–7.
19. Maartens G, Boffito M, Flexner CW. Compatibility of next-generation first-line antiretrovirals with rifampicin-based antituberculosis therapy in resource limited settings. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2017;12:355–8.
20. Svensson EM, Aweeka F, Park JG, Marzan F, Dooley KE, Karlsson MO. Model-based estimates of the effects of efavirenz on bedaquiline pharmacokinetics and suggested dose adjustments for patients coinfected with HIV and tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:2780–7.
21. Svensson EM, Dooley KE, Karlsson MO. Impact of lopinavir-ritonavir or nevirapine on bedaquiline exposures and potential implications for patients with tuberculosis-HIV coinfection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:6406–12.
22. Mallikaarjun S, Wells C, Petersen C, Paccaly A, Shoaf SE, Patil S et al. Delamanid coadministered with antiretroviral drugs or antituberculosis drugs shows no clinically relevant drug–drug interactions in healthy subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60(:5976–85.
23. Veziris N, Ibrahim M, Lounis N, Andries K, Jarlier V. Sterilizing activity of second-line regimens containing TMC207 in a murine model of tuberculosis. PLoS ONE. 2011;6:e17556.
24. Lounis N, Veziris N, Chauffour A, Truffot-Pernot C, Andries K, Jarlier V. Combinations of R207910 with drugs used to treat multidrug-resistant tuberculosis have the potential to shorten treatment duration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;50:3543–7.
25. Matsumoto M, Hashizume H, Tomishige T, Kawasaki M, Tsubouchi H, Sasaki H et al. OPC-67683, a nitro-dihydro-imidazooxazole derivative with promising action against tuberculosis in vitro and in mice. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e466.
26. Schweitzer A, Horn J, Mikolajczyk RT, Krause G, Ott JJ. Estimations of worldwide prevalence of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a systematic review of data published between 1965 and 2013. Lancet. 2015;386:1546–55.
27. WHO consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection. 2nd ed. Chapter 5: Clinical guidelines: managing common coinfections and comorbidities. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/chapter5.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
28. Healy SA, Gupta S, Melvin AJ. HIV/HBV coinfection in children and antiviral therapy. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2013;11:251–63.
29. EASL 2017 Clinical practice guidelines on the management of hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol. 2017;67:370–98.
30. Claret-Teruel G, Noguera-Julian A, Esteva C, Munoz-Almagro C, Sanchez E, Jimenez R et al. Impact of human immunodeficiency virus coinfection on the progression of mother-to-child transmitted hepatitis C virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:801-4.
31. Indolfi G, Bartolini E, Serranti D, Azzari C, Resti M. Hepatitis C in children co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2015;61:393–9.
32. Turkova A, Giacomet V, Goetghebuer T, Miloenko M, Nicolini LA, Noguera-Julian A et al. HCV treatment in children and young adults with HIV/HCV co-infection in Europe. J Virus Erad. 2015;1:179–84.
33. Recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C. Arlington (VA): American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and Infectious Diseases Society of America; 2017 (http://www.hcvguidelines.org, accessed 22 May 2018).
34. Indolfi G, Hierro L, Dezsofi A, Jahnel J, Debray D, Hadzic N et al. Treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection in children. A position paper by the Hepatology Committee of European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2018:66:505–15.
35. Penazzato M, Gnanashanmugam D, Rojo P, Lallemant M, Lewis LL, Rocchi F et al. Optimizing research to speed up availability of pediatric antiretroviral drugs and formulations. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:1597–603.
Acceptability
1. García-López I, Fuentes-Ríos JE, Manrique-Rodríguez SM, Fernández-Llamazares C. Off-label and unlicensed drug use: results from a pilot study in a paediatric intensive care unit. An Pediatr (Barc). 2017;86:28–36.
2. Mason J, Pirmohamed M, Nunn T. Off-label and unlicensed medicine use and adverse drug reactions in children: a narrative review of the literature. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;68:21–8.
3. Langerová P, Vrtal J, Urbánek K. Incidence of unlicensed and off-label prescription in children. Ital J Pediatr. 2014;40:12.
4. Magalhães, J. Rodrigues AT, Roque F, Figueiras A, Falcão A, Herdeiro MT. Use of off-label and unlicenced drugs in hospitalised paediatric patients: a systematic review. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;71:1–13.
5. Richey RH, Shah UU, Peak M, Craig JV, Ford JL, Barker CE et al. Manipulation of drugs to achieve the required dose is intrinsic to paediatric practice but is not supported by guidelines or evidence. BMC Pediatr. 2013;13:81.
6. How to comply with the Pediatric Research Equity Act. Guidance for industry. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2005.
7. United States Food and Drug Administration and Department of Health and Human Services. Guidance for industry use in medical product development to support labeling claims guidance for industry. Clin Fed Regist. 2009;1–39.
8. Pediatric study plans: content of and process for submitting initial pediatric study plans and amended initial pediatric study plans. Guidance for Industry. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2016.
9. Clinical investigation of medicinal products in the pediatric population. Geneva: International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use; 2000.
10. Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use. Reflection paper: formulations of choice for the paediatric population. London: European Medicines Agency; 2006:45.
11. Guideline on pharmaceutical development of medicines for paediatric use. London: European Medicines Agency; 2013;44:1–23.
12. Bucci-rechtweg C. Enhancing the pediatric drug development framework to deliver better pediatric therapies tomorrow. Clin Ther. 2017;39:1920–32.
13. Turner MA, Catapano M, Hirschfeld S, Giaquinto C. Paediatric drug development: the impact of evolving regulations. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2014;73:2–13.
14. van Riet-Nales DA, Schobben AFAM, Egberts TCG, Rademaker CMA. Effects of the pharmaceutical technologic aspects of oral pediatric drugs on patient-related outcomes: a systematic literature review. Clin Ther. 2010;32:924–38.
15. Drumond N, van Riet-Nales DA, Karapinar-Çarkit F, Stegemann S. Patients’ appropriateness, acceptability, usability and preferences for pharmaceutical preparations: results from a literature review on clinical evidence. Int J Pharm. 2017;521:294–305.
16. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A, Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review. Arch Dis Child. 2012;97:293–7.
17. Squires LA, Lombardi DP, Sjostedt P, Thompson CA. A systematic literature review on the assessment of palatability and swallowability in the development of oral dosage forms for pediatric patients. Ther Innov Regul Sci. 2013;47:533–41.
18. Development of paediatric medicines: points to consider in formulation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012:235 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js19833en, accessed 22 May 2018).
19. Report of the Informal Expert Meeting on Dosage Forms of Medicines for Children. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008;1–15 (http://www.who.int/selection_medicines/committees/expert/17/application/paediatric/Dosage_form_reportDEC2008.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
20. General principles: EMA-FDA parallel scientific advice (human medicinal products). Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2017;1–4.
21. Zisowsky J, Krause A, Dingemanse J. Drug development for pediatric populations: regulatory aspects. Pharmaceutics. 2010;2:364–88.
22. Kozarewicz P. Regulatory perspectives on acceptability testing of dosage forms in children. Int J Pharm. 2014;469:245–8.
23. Tomasi P. Writing applications for paediatric investigation plans and waivers. Med Writ. 2012;21.
24. Orubu ES, Tuleu C. Medicines for children : flexible solid oral formulations. Bull World Health Organ. 2017;238–40.
25. Ivanovska V, Rademaker CMA, van Dijk L, Mantel-Teeuwisse AK. Pediatric drug formulations: a review of challenges and progress. Pediatrics. 2014;134:361–72.
26. Walsh J, Ranmal SR, Ernest TB, Liu F. Patient acceptability, safety and access: a balancing act for selecting age-appropriate oral dosage forms for paediatric and geriatric populations. Int J Pharm. 2018;536:547–62.
27. Ranmal SR, Cram A, Tuleu C. Age-appropriate and acceptable paediatric dosage forms: Insights into end-user perceptions, preferences and practices from the Children’s Acceptability of Oral Formulations (CALF) Study. Int J Pharm. 2016;514:296–307.
28. Ranmal SR, O’Brien F, Lopez F, Ruiz F, Orlu M, Tuleu C et al. Methodologies for assessing the acceptability of oral formulations among children and older adults: a systematic review. Drug Discov Today. 2018;23:830–47.
29. van Riet-Nales DA, Römkens EG, Saint-Raymond A, Kozarewicz P, Schobben AF, Egberts TC et al. Oral medicines for children in the European paediatric investigation plans. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e98348.
30. Quijano Ruiz B, Desfontaine E, Arenas-Ló Pez S, Wang S. Pediatric formulation issues identified in paediatric investigation plans. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2014;7:25–30.
31. Walsh J. Reflection on the pharmaceutical formulation challenges associated with a paediatric investigation plan for an off-patent drug. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2017;18:250–6.
32. Sam T, Ernest TB, Walsh J, Williams JL. A benefit/risk approach towards selecting appropriate pharmaceutical dosage forms – an application for paediatric dosage form selection. Int J Pharm. 2012;435:115–23.
33. Montero-Padilla S, Velaga S, Morales JO. Buccal dosage forms: general considerations for pediatric patients. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2017;18:273–82.
34. Ternik AR, Liu F, Bartlett JA, Khong YM, Thiam Tan DC, Dixit T et al. Assessment of swallowability and palatability of oral dosage forms in children: report from an M-CERSI pediatric formulation workshop. Int J Pharm. 2018;536:570–81.
35. Venables R, Batchelor H, Hodson J, Stirling H, Marriott J. Determination of formulation factors that affect oral medicines acceptability in a domiciliary paediatric population. Int J Pharm. 2015;480:55–62.
36. Liu F, Ranmal S, Batchelor HK, Orlu-Gul M, Ernest TB, Thomas IW et al. European Paediatric Formulation Initiatives EuPFI. Formulation factors affecting acceptability of oral medicines in children. Int J Pharm. 2015;492:341–3.
37. Cram A, Breitkreutz J, Desset-Brèthes S, Nunn T, Tuleu C. Challenges of developing palatable oral paediatric formulations. Int J Pharm. 2009;365:1–3.
38. Purohit VS. Biopharmaceutic planning in pediatric drug development. AAPS J. 2012;14:519–22.
39. Ricci BM. Bridging studies in support of oral pediatric formulation development. Int J Pharm. 2013;457:323–6.
40. Flanagan T, Tuleu C. Patient-centred pharmaceutical design to improve acceptability of medicines : similarities and differences in paediatric and geriatric populations. Drugs. 2014;74:1871–89.
41. Mistry P, Batchelor H. Methodology used to assess acceptability of oral pediatric medicines: a systematic literature search and narrative review. Pediatr Drugs. 2017;19:223–33.
42. Mistry P, Batchelor H. Evidence of acceptability of oral paediatric medicines: a review. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2017;69:361–76.
43. Squires LA, Lombardi DP, Sjostedt P, Thompson CA. A systematic literature review on the assessment of palatability and swallowability in the development of oral dosage forms for pediatric patients. Ther Innov Regul Sci. 2013;47:533–41.
44. Davies EH, Tuleu C. Medicines for children: a matter of taste. J Pediatr. 2008;153:599–604.
45. Guideline on the demonstration of palatability of veterinary medicinal products. London: European Medicines Agency; 2014;44:1–7.
46. Pinto J, Selen A. Acceptability of pediatric formulations: palatability and swallowability: FDA/CDER Office of Pharmaceutical Quality (Chemistry and Product Performance) perspective. M-CERSI Symposium: Challenges and Strategies to Facilitate Formulation Development of Pediatric Drug Products, Hyattsville, MD, USA, 8–9 June 2016 (http://www.pharmacy.umaryland.edu/media/SOP/wwwpharmacyumarylandedu/centers/cersievents/pedsformulation/selen-presentation-notes.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
47. Coldwell SE, Mennella JA, Duffy VB, Pelchat ML, Griffith JW, Smutzer G et al. Gustation assessment using the NIH Toolbox. Neurology. 2013;80:S20–4.
48. Mennella JA. Ontogeny of taste preferences: basic biology and implications for health. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99:704–11.
49. Mennella JA, Spector AC, Reed DR, Coldwell SE. The bad taste of medicines: overview of basic research on bitter taste. Clin Ther. 2013;35:1225–46.
50. Guinard J-X. Sensory and consumer smiley face testing with children. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2001;11:273–83.
51. Lim J, Wood A, Green BG. Derivation and evaluation of a labeled hedonic scale. Chem Senses. 2009;34:739–51.
52. Popper R, Kroll JJ. Conducting sensory research with children. J Sens Stud. 2005;20:75–95.
53. Sjövall J, Fogh A, Huitfeldt B, Karlsson G, Nylén O. Methods for evaluating the taste of paediatric formulations in children: a comparison between the facial hedonic method and the patients’ own spontaneous verbal judgement. Eur J Pediatr. 1984;141:243–7.
54. Mennella JA, Mathew PS, Lowenthal ED. Use of adult sensory panel to study individual differences in the palatability of a pediatric HIV treatment drug. Clin Ther. 2017;39:2038–48.
55. Kokki H, Nikanne E, Ahonen R. The feasibility of pain treatment at home after adenoidectomy with ketoprofen tablets in small children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2000;10:531–5.
56. Els Van de Vijver, Desager K, Mulberg AE, Staelens S, Verkade HJ, Bodewes FA et al. Treatment of infants and toddlers with cystic fibrosis‐related pancreatic insufficiency. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2011;53:61–4.
57. Human factors studies and related clinical study considerations in combination product design and development: draft guidance for industry and FDA staff. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2016 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM484345.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
58. Hofer MP, Jakobsson C, Zafiropoulos N, Vamvakas S, Vetter T, Regnstrom J et al. Regulatory watch: impact of scientific advice from the European Medicines Agency. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2015;14:302–3.
59. Lopez FL, Ernest TB, Tuleu C, Gul MO. Formulation approaches to pediatric oral drug delivery : benefits and limitations of current platforms. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2015;12:1727–40.
60. Garvie PA, Lensing S, Rai SN. Efficacy of a pill-swallowing training intervention to improve antiretroviral medication adherence in pediatric patients with HIV/AIDS. Pediatrics. 2007;119:e893-9.
61. Jefferds MED, Ogange L, Owuor M, Cruz K, Person B, Obure A et al. Formative research exploring acceptability, utilization, and promotion in order to develop a micronutrient powder sprinkles; intervention among Luo families in western Kenya. Food Nutr Bull. 2010;31:179–85.
62. Walsh J, Bickmann D, Breitkreutz J, Chariot-Goulet M. Delivery devices for the administration of paediatric formulations: overview of current practice, challenges and recent developments. Int J Pharm. 2011;415:221–31.
63. Thomson SA, Tuleu C, Wong IC, Keady S, Pitt KG, Sutcliffe AG. Minitablets: new modality to deliver medicines to preschool-aged children. Pediatrics. 2009;123:e235–8.
64. Klingmann V. Acceptability of mini-tablets in young children: results from three prospective cross-over studies. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2017;18:263–6.
65. Klingmann V. Spomer N, Lerch C, Stoltenberg I, Frömke C, Bosse HM et al. Favorable acceptance of mini-tablets compared with syrup: a randomized controlled trial in infants and preschool children. J Pediatr. 2013;163:1728–33.
66. Spomer N. Klingmann V, Stoltenberg I, Lerch C, Meissner T, Breitkreutz J. Acceptance of uncoated mini-tablets in young children: results from a prospective exploratory cross-over study. Arch Dis Child. 2012;97:283–6.
67. Stoltenberg I, Breitkreutz J. Orally disintegrating mini-tablets ODMTs – a novel solid oral dosage form for paediatric use. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2011;78:462–9.
68. Kluk A, Sznitowska M. Application properties of oral gels as media for administration of minitablets and pellets to paediatric patients. Int J Pharm. 2014;460:228–33.
69. Kluk A, Sznitowska M, Brandt A, Sznurkowska K, Plata-Nazar K, Mysliwiec M et al. Can preschool-aged children swallow several minitablets at a time? Results from a clinical pilot study. Int J Pharm. 2015;485:1–6.
70. Kekitiinwa A, Musiime V, Thomason MJ, Mirembe G, Lallemant M, Nakalanzi S et al. Acceptability of lopinavir/r pellets minitabs; tablets and syrups in HIV-infected children. Antivir Ther. 2016;21:579–85.
71. Bagger-Sjöbäck D, Bondesson G. Taste evaluation and compliance of two paediatric formulations of phenoxymethylpenicillin in children. Scand J Prim Health Care. 1989;7:87–92.
72. ElChaar GM, Mardy G, Wehlou K, Rubin LG. Randomized, double blind comparison of brand and generic antibiotic suspensions. II. A study of taste and compliance in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1996;15:18–22.
73. Cohen R, de La Rocque F, Lécuyer A, Wollner C, Bodin MJ, Wollner A. Study of the acceptability of antibiotic syrups, suspensions, and oral solutions prescribed to pediatric outpatients. Eur J Pediatr. 2009;168:851–7.
74. Lottmann H, Froeling F, Alloussi S, El-Radhi AS, Rittig S, Riis A et al. A randomised comparison of oral desmopressin lyophilisate (MELT) and tablet formulations in children and adolescents with primary nocturnal enuresis. Int J Clin Pract. 2007;61:1454–60.
75. Walch AC, Henin E, Berthiller J, Dode X, Abel B, Kassai B et al. Oral dosage form administration practice in children under 6 years of age: a survey study of paediatric nurses. Int J Pharm. 2016;511:855–63.
76. Slavkova M, Breitkreutz J. Orodispersible drug formulations for children and elderly. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2015;75:2–9.
77. Batchelor H, Kaukonen AM, Klein S, Davit B, Ju R, Ternik R et al. Food effects in paediatric medicines development for products co-administered with food. Int J Pharm. 2018;536:530–5.
78. Martir J, Flanagan T, Mann J, Fotaki N. Recommended strategies for the oral administration of paediatric medicines with food and drinks in the context of their biopharmaceutical properties: a review. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2017;69:384–97.
79. Abu-Geras, D. Hadziomerovic D, Leau A, Khan RN, Gudka S, Locher C et al. Accuracy of tablet splitting and liquid measurements: an examination of who, what and how. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2017;69:603–12.
80. Ruiz F, Vallet T, Pensé-Lhéritier AM, Aoussat A. Standardized method to assess medicines’ acceptability: focus on paediatric population. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2017;69:406–16.
81. Venables R, Stirling H, Batchelor H, Marriott J. Problems with oral formulations prescribed to children: a focus group study of healthcare professionals. Int J Clin Pharm. 2015;37:1057–67.
82. Pein M, Preis M, Eckert C, Kiene FE. Taste-masking assessment of solid oral dosage forms – a critical review. Int J Pharm. 2014;465:239–54.
83. Adams LV, Craig SR, Mmbaga EJ, Naburi H, Lahey T, Nutt CT et al. Children’s medicines in Tanzania: a national survey of administration practices and preferences. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:1–7.
84. Mennella JA, Roberts KM, Mathew PS, Reed DR. Children’s perceptions about medicines: individual differences and taste. BMC Pediatr. 2015;15:130.
85. Matza LS, Patrick DL, Riley AW, Alexander JJ, Rajmil L, Pleil AM et al. Pediatric patient-reported outcome instruments for research to support medical product labeling: report of the ISPOR PRO good research practices for the assessment of children and adolescents task force. Value Heal. 2013;16:461–79.
86. Mulla H, Buck H, Price L, Parry A, Bell G, Skinner R. “Acceptability” of a new oral suspension formulation of mercaptopurine in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. J Oncol Pharm Pract. 2016;22:387–95.
87. Thompson A, Reader S, Field E, Shephard A. Open-label taste-testing study to evaluate the acceptability of both strawberry-flavored and orange-flavored amylmetacresol/2,4-dichlorobenzyl alcohol throat lozenges in healthy children. Drugs R D. 2013;13:101–7.
88. van Riet-Nales DA, de Neef BJ, Schobben AF, Ferreira JA, Egberts TC, Rademaker CM. Acceptability of different oral formulations in infants and preschool children. Arch Dis Child. 2013;98:725–31.
89. Bryson SP. Patient-centred, administration friendly medicines for children – an evaluation of children’s preferences and how they impact medication adherence. Int J Pharm. 2014;469:257–9.
90. Nebot Giralt A, Nöstlinger C, Lee J, Salami O, Lallemant M, Ouma O et al. Understanding the acceptability and adherence to paediatric antiretroviral treatment in the new formulation of pellets LPV/r: the protocol of a realist evaluation. BMJ Open. 2017;7:e014528.
91. Eichler H, Abadie E, Breckenridge A, Flamion B, Gustafsson LL, Leufkens H et al. Bridging the efficacy–effectiveness gap: a regulator’s perspective on addressing variability of drug response. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2011;10:495–506.
92. Comparative analyses and related comparative use human factors studies for a drug-device combination product submitted in an ANDA: draft guidance for industry comparative analyses and related comparative use human factors studies for a drug-device combination. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2017.
93. Foissac F, Fauchet F, Burger D, Capparelli EV, Lallemant M. Lopinavir/ritonavir plus lamivudine and abacavir or zidovudine dose ratios for paediatric fixed-dose combinations. Antivir Ther. 2015;20:225–33.
94. Musiime V, Fillekes Q, Kekitiinwa A, Kendall L, Keishanyu R, Namuddu R et al. The pharmacokinetics and acceptability of lopinavir/ritonavir minitab sprinkles, tablets, and syrups in African HIV-infected children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;66:148–54.
95. Kekitiinwa A, Musiime V, Thomason MJ, Mirembe G, Lallemant M, Nakalanzi S et al. Acceptability of lopinavir/r pellets (minitabs), tablets and syrups in HIV-infected children. Antivir Ther. 2016;21:579–85.
96. Children with HIV in Africa – Pharmacokinetics and Adherence of Simple Antiretroviral Regimens (CHAPAS-2). London: ISRCTN Registry; 2011 (http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN01946535, accessed 22 May 2018).
Community engagement
1. Hoo A, Anderson J, Boutin M, Dewulf L, Geissler J, Johnston G et al. Partnering with patients in the development and lifestyle of medicines: a call for action. Ther Innov Regul Sci. 2015;49:929–39.
2. Slevin KW, Ukpong M, Heise L. Community engagement in HIV prevention trials: evolution of the field and opportunities for growth. Seattle (WA): PATH; 2008 (http://www.path.org/publications/detail.php?i=1647, accessed 22 May 2018).
3. Community Partners. Recommendations for community engagement in HIV/AIDS research: a guide for communities and researchers, version 2.0. Seattle (WA): Office of HIV/AIDS Network Coordination; 2014 (https://www.hanc.info/cp/resources/Pages/recommendationsInvolvement.aspx, accessed 22 May 2018).
4. Community engagement: work under the microscope. London: Wellcome Trust; 2011 (https://wellcome.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wtvm054326_0.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
5. Geissler PW, Pool R. Popular concerns about medical research projects in Sub-Saharan Africa – a critical voice in debates about medical research ethics. Trop Med Int Health. 2006; 11:975–82.
6. The ethics of research related to healthcare in developing countries. Nuffield: Nuffield Council on Bioethics; 2002 (http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Ethics-of-research-related-to-healthcare-in-developing-countries-I.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
7. Children and clinical research: ethical issues. Nuffield: Nuffield Council on Bioethics; (http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/Children-and-clinical-research-full-report.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
8. MRC ethics guide: medical research involving children. London: Medical Research Council; 2004 (https://www.mrc.ac.uk/documents/pdf/medical-research-involving-children, accessed 22 May 2018).
9. Ethical considerations for clinical trials on medicinal products conducted with the paediatric population. Recommendations of the ad hoc group for the development of implementing guidelines for Directive 2001/20/EC relating to good clinical practice in the conduct of clinical trials on medicinal products for human use. Brussels: European Commission; 2008 (https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/files/eudralex/vol-10/ethical_considerations_en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
10. Walsh E, Sheridan A. Factors affecting patient participation in clinical trials in Ireland: a narrative review. Contemp Clin Trials Commun. 2016;3:23–31.
11. Nyika A, Chilengi R, Ishengoma D, Mtenga S, Thera MA, Sissoko MS et al. Engaging diverse communities participating in clinical trials: case examples from across Africa. Malaria J. 2010; 9:86.
12. United Nations General Assembly. Convention on the Rights of the Child. New York: United Nations; 1989 (http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r025.htm, accessed 22 May 2018).
13. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Working methods for the participation of children in the reporting process of the Committee on the Rights of the Child. New York: United Nations; 2014 (http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/WorkingMethods.aspx, accessed 22 May 2018).
14. Principles of community engagement. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry; 2011 (https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/communityengagement/index.html, accessed 22 May 2018).
15. Gwara M, Smith S, Woods C, Sheeren E, Woods H. International Children’s Advisory Network: a multifaceted approach to patient engagement in paediatric clinical research. Clin Ther. 2017;39:1933–8.
16. Track 1: community empowerment. 7th Global Conference on Health Promotion: track themes. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009 (Proceedings of the 7th Global Conference on Health Promotion, accessed 22 May 2018).
17. Lowe MM, Blaser DA, Cone L, Arcona S, Ko J, Sasane R, Wicks P. Increasing patient involvement in drug development. Value Health. 2016;19:869–78.
18. Good participatory practice: guidelines for biomedical HIV prevention trials, 2nd ed. New York: AIDS Vaccine Advocacy Coalition; 2011 (https://www.avac.org/good-participatory-practice, accessed 22 May 2018).
19. Wendler D, Rackoff JE, Emanuel EJ, Grady C. The ethics of paying for children’s participation in research. J Pediatr. 2002;141:166–71.
20. Dobson R. Lump sums for children taking part in research may distort parents’ judgment. BMJ. 2002;325:796.
21. Joseph PD, Craig JC, Caldwell PHY. Clinical trials in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;79:357–69.
Target product profiles
1. Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. Health product research & development fund: a proposal for financing and operation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204522/9789241510295_eng.pdf;jsessionid=C12BA0E88127D0348DFEBCE916117FC4?sequence=1, accessed 22 May 2018).
2. WHO Expert Committee on Specifications for Pharmaceutical Preparations: fifty-first report. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017 (http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/quality_safety/quality_assurance/expert_committee/WHO_TRS_1003_full-version.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
3. Target product profile – paediatric HIV. Geneva: Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative; 2018 (https://www.dndi.org/diseases-projects/paediatric-hiv/paedhiv-target-product-profile, accessed 22 May 2018).
4. Lopez FL, Ernest TB, Tuleu C, Orlu Gul M. Formulation approaches to pediatric oral drug delivery: benefits and limitations of current platforms. Expert Opin Drug Del. 2015;12:1727–40.
5. Annex 2, Stability testing of active pharmaceutical ingredients and finished pharmaceutical products. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js19133en/, accessed 22 May 2018).
6. Inter-Agency Agreement between the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Bethesda (MD): United States National Institutes of Health; 2014 (https://bpca.nichd.nih.gov/collaborativeefforts/initiatives/Documents/Formulations_Platform_Report2.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
7. Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use. Reflection paper: formulations of choice for the paediatric population. London: European Medicines Agency; 2006 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2009/09/WC500003782.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
8. Strickley RG, Iwata Q, Wu S, Dahl TC. Pediatric drugs – a review of commercially available oral formulations. J Pharm Sci. 2008;97:1731–74.
9. Nunn T, Williams J. Formulation of medicines for children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59:674–6.
10. Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use Paediatric Committee. Guideline on pharmaceutical development of medicines for paediatric use, Rev 2. London: European Medicines Agency; 2013 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2013/07/WC500147002.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
11. Liu F, Ranmal S, Batchelor HK, Orlu-Gul M, Ernest TB, Thomas IW et al. Patient-centred pharmaceutical design to improve acceptability of medicines: similarities and differences in paediatric and geriatric populations. Drugs. 2014;74:1871–89.
12. Batchelor HK, Marriott JF. Formulations for children: problems and solutions. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;79:405–18.
13. Lopez FL, Ernest TB, Tuleu C, Gul MO. Formulation approaches to pediatric oral drug delivery: benefits and limitations of current platforms. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2015;12:1727–40.
14. Penazzato M, Lee J, Capparelli E, Essajee S, Ford N, Ojoo A et al. Optimizing drugs to reach treatment targets for children and adolescents living with HIV. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18:20270.
15. Penazzato M, Gnanashanmugam D, Rojo P, Lallemant M, Lewis LL, Rocchi F et al. Optimizing research to speed up availability of pediatric antiretroviral drugs and formulations. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:1597–1603.
16. Penazzato M, Palladino C, Sugandhi N. Prioritizing the most needed formulations to accelerate paediatric antiretroviral therapy scale-up. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2017;12:369–76.
17. Clarke DF, Penazzato M, Capparelli E, Cressey TR, Siberry G, Sugandhi N et al. Prevention and treatment of HIV infection in neonates: evidence base for existing WHO dosing recommendations and implementation considerations. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018;11:83–93.
18. Clarke D, Acosta E, Chain A, Cababasay M, Wang J, Teppler H et al. Raltegravir pharmacokinetics and safety in HIV-1 exposed neonates: dose-finding study. 2017 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, marketing authorization, USA, 13–16 February 2017 (http://www.croiconference.org/sessions/raltegravir-pharmacokinetics-and-safety-hiv-1-exposed-neonates-dose-finding-study, accessed 22 May 2018).
19. HIV medication adherence. Washington (DC): United States Department of Health and Human Services; 2018 (https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv-aids/fact-sheets/21/54/hiv-medication-adherence#, accessed 22 May 2018).
20. Stability testing of active pharmaceutical ingredients and finished pharmaceutical products. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s19133en/s19133en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
21. Draft guidance on approval of clinical trials & new drugs. New Delhi: Central Drugs Standard Control Organization, Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare 2011 (http://www.cdsco.nic.in/writereaddata/Guidance_for_New_Drug_Approval-23.07.2011.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
22. Annex to the European Commission guideline on “Excipients in the labelling and package leaflet of medicinal products for human use”. London: European Medicines Agency; 2017 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2009/09/WC500003412.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
23. Guidance for industry: nonclinical studies for the evaluation of pharmaceutical excipients. Washington DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2005 (https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/98fr/2002d-0389-gdl0002.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
24. Management of drugs at health centre level – training manual. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js7919e/7.html#Js7919e.7, accessed 22 May 2018).
25. Violari A, Lindsey JC, Hughes MD, Mujuru HA, Barlow-Mosha L, Kamthunzi P et al. Nevirapine versus ritonavir-boosted lopinavir for HIV-infected children. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2380–9.
26. Nachman S, Alvero C, Acosta EP, Teppler H, Homony B, Graham B et al. Pharmacokinetics and 48-week safety and efficacy of raltegravir for oral suspension in human immunodeficiency virus type-1-infected children 4 weeks to 2 years of age. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2015;4:e76–83.
27. Teppler H, Thompson K, Chain A, Mathe M, Nachman S, Clarke D. Crushing of raltegravir (RAL) chewable tablets for administration in infants and young children. 9th International Workshop on HIV, Paris, France, 21–22 July 2017.
28. Simon A, Warszawski J, Kariyawasam D, Le Chenadec J, Benhammou V, Czernichow P et al. Association of prenatal and postnatal exposure to lopinavir-ritonavir and adrenal dysfunction among uninfected infants of HIV-infected mothers. JAMA. 2011;306:70–8.
29. Lopriore E, Rozendaal L, Gelinck LB, Bökenkamp R, Boelen CCA, Walther FJ. Twins with cardiomyopathy and complete heart block born to an HIV-infected mother treated with HAART. AIDS. AIDS; 2007;21:2564–5.
Product commercialization
1. Dongmo-Nguimfack B. Major ARV regimens used among adults and children and trends as impact of policies on ARV regimens since 2010–2017. Joint WHO/UNAIDS Annual Consultation with Pharmaceutical Companies, Partner Organizations and Stakeholders, Geneva, Switzerland, April 2018.
2. A super-Fast Track framework for ending AIDS in children, adolescents and young women by 2020. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2018 (https://free.unaids.org, accessed 22 May 2018).
3. Paediatric HIV/AIDS project. Paris: Unitaid; 2015 (https://unitaid.eu/project/paediatric-hiv-aids-project/#en, accessed 22 May 2018).
4. Antiretroviral Procurement Working Group. 2016. Sustaining paediatric ARV supply security with the PAPWG. Geneva: Global Fund to Fight AIDS; Tuberculosis and Malaria; 2016 (https://www.theglobalfund.org/media/6492/psm_paediatricarvprocurementworkinggroupcasestudy_report_en.pdf?u=636597505830000000, accessed 22 May 2018).
5. Penazzato M, Lee J, Capparelli E, Essajee S, Ford N, Ojoo A et al. Optimizing drugs to reach treatment targets for children and adolescents living with HIV. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18:20270.
6. Interagency Task Team on Prevention and Treatment of HIV Infection in Pregnant Women, Mothers and Children. Update to the optimal list of paediatric ARV formulations. IATT meeting report. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/m/abstract/Js21435en, accessed 22 May 2018).
7. Interagency Task Team on Prevention and Treatment of HIV Infection in Pregnant Women, Mothers and Children. Update to the optimal list of paediatric ARV formulations. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/m/abstract/Js22094en, accessed 22 May 2018).
8. Interagency Task Team on Prevention and Treatment of HIV Infection in Pregnant Women, Mothers and Children. 2016 IATT paediatric ARV formulary and limited-use list: 2016 update. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s23120en/s23120en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
9. Prabhu VR, McGovern S, Domanico P. Estimating the size of the pediatric antiretroviral (ARV) market in 26 low- and middle-income countries (low- and middle-income countries) through 2025 as prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) initiatives continue to succeed. 9th IAS Conference on HIV Science, 23–26 July 2017, Paris, France (Abstract WEAD0203; http://programme.ias2017.org/Abstract/Abstract/2724, accessed 22 May 2018).
10. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and prevention HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/arv-2016/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
11. Tentative approval for abacavir and lamvidine tablets for oral suspension, 120mg/60mg. Washington (DC): United States Department of Health and Human Services; 2014 (https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2014/204915Orig1s000TAltr.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
12. ARV Procurement Working Group. Anticipated demand forecast. Geneva: Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; 2018 (https://www.theglobalfund.org/media/6589/psm_arvprocurementworkinggroupanticipateddemandforecast_table_en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
13. New product introduction toolkit. Washington (DC): Clinton Health Access Initiative; 2017 (https://www.newhivdrugs.org, accessed 22 May 2018).
Regulatory filing
1. Draft guidance for industry: pediatric study plans: content of and process for submitting initial pediatric study plans and amended initial pediatric study plans: guidance for industry. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2016 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guidances/ucm360507.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
2. Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on medicinal products for paediatric use and amending Regulation (EEC) No 1768/92, Directive 2001/20/EC, Directive 2001/83/EC and Regulation (EC) No 726/2004. Brussels: European Commission; 2006 (https://ec.europa.eu/health//sites/health/files/files/eudralex/vol-1/reg_2006_1901/reg_2006_1901_en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
3. Regulation (EC) No 1902/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 amending Regulation 1901/2006 on medicinal products for paediatric use. Brussels: European Commission; 2006 (https://ec.europa.eu/health//sites/health/files/files/eudralex/vol-1/reg_2006_1902/reg_2006_1902_en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
4. Information from European Union institutions, bodies, offices and agencies. Guideline on the format and content of applications for agreement or modification of a paediatric investigation plan and requests for waivers or deferrals and concerning the operation of the compliance check and on criteria for assessing significant studies. Brussels: European Commission; 2014 (https://ec.europa.eu/health//sites/health/files/files/eudralex/vol-1/2014_c338_01/2014_c338_01_en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
5. Principles of interactions: between EMEA and FDA pediatric therapeutics. London: European Medicines Agency; 2007 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Other/2009/12/WC500017969.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
6. Guidance for industry: fixed dose combinations, co-packaged drug products, and single-entity versions of previously approved antiretrovirals for the treatment of HIV. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2006 (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM079742.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
7. Getting started with the division of antiviral products pre-investigational new drug process. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2017 (https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/ApprovalApplications/InvestigationalNewDrugInewdrug applicationpplication/Overview/ucm077546.htm, accessed 22 May 2018).
8. Division of Anti-Viral Products' (DAVP) pre-investigational new drug letter of instruction. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2016 (https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/ApprovalApplications/InvestigationalNewDrugINDApplication/Overview/ucm077776.htm, accessed 22 May 2018).
9. Article 58 applications: regulatory and procedural guidance. London: European Medicines Agency; 2016 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/regulation/document_listing/document_listing_000157.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac05800240d1, accessed 22 May 2018).
10. Opinions on medicines for use outside the European Union. London: European Medicines Agency; 2016 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/regulation/general/general_content_000312.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058001d12c, accessed 22 May 2018).
11. Accelerated registration of prequalified finished pharmaceutical products. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (https://extranet.who.int/prequal/content/collaborative-registration-faster-registration, accessed 22 May 2018).
12. HIV new product introduction toolkit: registration. Washington (DC): Clinton Health Access Initiative; 2017 (https://www.newhivdrugs.org/registration, accessed 22 May 2018).
13. WHO generic tool for assessing paediatric ARV dosing. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018 (http://www.who.int/hiv/paediatric/generictool/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
14. Draft guidance for industry: pediatric HIV infection: drug development for treatment. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2018 (https://www.fda.gov/ucm/groups/fdagov-public/@fdagov-drugs-gen/documents/document/ucm607416.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
15. Guideline on the clinical development of medicinal products for the treatment of HIV infection. London: European Medicines Agency; 2016 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2016/07/WC500209918.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
16. Guidance for industry: prescription drug user fee act waivers for fixed combination antiretroviral drugs for the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. Washington (DC): United States Food and Drug Administration; 2018 (https://www.fda.gov/ucm/groups/fdagov-public/@fdagov-drugs-gen/documents/document/ucm610019.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
17. Support for applications on Article 58. London: European Medicines Agency; 2017 (http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Regulatory_and_procedural_guideline/2017/02/WC500221119.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
18. WHO Prequalification of Medicines Programme – application fees. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s20307en/s20307en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
19. WHO/PQT Guidance Document. WHO prequalification fees. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (https://extranet.who.int/prequal/sites/default/files/documents/PQ_Fees_092017_1.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
20. Annex to WHO prequalification fees. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s20307en/s20307en.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
Pharmacovigilance
1. The importance of pharmacovigilance – safety monitoring of medicinal products. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js4893e, accessed 22 May 2018).
2. International drug monitoring: the role of national centres. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1972 (http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/40968, accessed 22 May 2018).
3. Rawlins MD, Thompson JW. Pathogenesis of adverse drug reactions. In: Davies DM, editor. Textbook of adverse drug reactions. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1977.
4. Bedimo R, Rosenblatt L, Myers J. Systematic review of renal and bone safety of the antiretroviral regimen efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in patients with HIV infection. HIV Clin Trials. 2016;17:246–66.
5. Mouton JP, Cohen K, Maartens G. Key toxicity issues with the WHO-recommended first-line antiretroviral therapy regimen. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2016;9:1493–1503.
6. Kim JH, Scialli AR. Thalidomide: the tragedy of birth defects and the effective treatment of disease. Toxicol Sci. 2011;122:1–6.
7. Olsson S, Pal SN, Dodoo A. Pharmacovigilance in resource-limited countries. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2015;8:449–60.
8. Aronson JK, Hauben M, Bate A. Defining “surveillance” in drug safety. Drug Saf. 2012;35:347–57.
9. Guideline on good pharmacovigilance practives (GVP). Product- or population-specific considerations. IV. Paediatric population. EMA/572054/2016 draft for public consultation. London: European Medicines Agency; 2017.
10. van Ramshorst MS, Kekana M, Struthers HE, McIntyre JA, Peters RP. Efavirenz-induced gynecomastia in a prepubertal girl with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a case report. BMC Pediatr. 2013;13:120.
11. Njuguna C, Swart A, Blockman M, Maartens G, Chisholm B, Stewart A et al. Cases of antiretroviral-associated gynaecomastia reported to the National HIV & Tuberculosis Health Care Worker Hotline in South Africa. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:40.
12. Surveillance of antiretroviral drug toxicity within antiretroviral treatment programmes. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013 (http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv_toxicity/technical-brief-surveillance/en, accessed 22 May 2018).
13. Oreagba IA, Usman SO, Olayemi SO, Oshikoya KA, Opanuga O, Adeyemo TA et al. Pharmacoepidemiology of antiretroviral drugs in a teaching hospital in Lagos, Nigeria. Ghana Med J. 2014;48:194–203.
14. Zisowsky J, Krause A, Dingemanse J. Drug development for pediatric populations: regulatory aspects. Pharmaceutics. 2010;2:364–88.
15. European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on medicinal products for paediatric use and amending Regulation (EEC) No 1768/92, Directive 2001/20/EC, Directive 2001/83/EC and Regulation (EC) No 726/2004. Offic J Eur Union. 2016;L 378:1–19.
16. Tayman C, Rayyan M, Allegaert K. Neonatal pharmacology: extensive interindividual variability despite limited size. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2011;16:170–84.
17. Smyth RM, Gargon E, Kirkham J, Cresswell L, Golder S, Smyth R, Williamson P. Adverse drug reactions in children – a systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e24061.
18. Safety of medicine in sub-Saharan Africa: assessment of pharmacovigilance systems and their performance. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011 (http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js19152en, accessed 22 May 2018).
19. Osokogu OU, Dukanovic J, Ferrajolo C, Dodd C, Pacurariu AC, Bramer WM et al. Pharmacoepidemiological safety studies in children: a systematic review. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2016;25:861–70.
20. Barlow-Mosha L, Musiime V, Davies MA, Prendergast AJ, Musoke P, Siberry G et al. Universal antiretroviral therapy for HIV-infected children: a review of the benefits and risks to consider during implementation. J Int AIDS Soc. 2017;20:21552.
21. Elzi L, Erb S, Furrer H, Cavassini M, Calmy A, Vernazza P et al. Adverse events of raltegravir and dolutegravir. AIDS. 2017;31:1853–8.
22. UNAIDS data 2017. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2017.
23. Townsend C, Byrne L, Cortina Borja M, Thorne C, De Ruiter A, Lyall H et al. Earlier initiation of ART and further decline in mother-to-child HIV transmission rates, 2000–2011. AIDS. 2014;28:1049–57.
24. 2015 progress report on the Global Plan. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2015.
25. Children and AIDS: statistical update 2017. New York: UNICEF; 2017.
26. Thorne C. The HIV-exposed and uninfected child: what's to worry? 24th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Seattle, WA, USA, 13–16 February 2017.
27. Slogrove A, Johnson L, Powis K. The population effect of HIV exposure in HIV-uninfected children on infant mortality in Botswana and South Africa. 9th International Workshop on HIV Pediatrics, Paris, France, 21–22 July 2017.
28. Jose KM, Wallace MR. FDA pregnancy categories for antiretroviral therapy. In: Anand J, Bartlett J, editors. New York: Medscape; 2014 (https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2039748-overview, accessed 22 May 2018).
29. ARV market report, Issue 8, September 2017. Boston: Clinton Health Access Initiative; 2017.
30. Strengthening Pharmaceutical Systems (SPS) Program. Safety of medicines in sub-Saharan Africa: assessment of pharmacovigilance systems and their performance. Arlington (VA): Management Sciences for Health; 2011.
31. Minimum requirements for a functional pharmacovigilance system. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010 (http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/quality_safety/safety_efficacy/PV_Minimum_Requirements_2010_2.pdf, accessed 22 May 2018).
32. Bakare N, Edwards IR, Stergachis A, Pal S, Holmes CB, Lindquist M et al. Global pharmacovigilance for antiretroviral drugs: overcoming contrasting priorities. PLoS Med. 2011;8:e1001054.
33. Ending AIDS. Progress towards the 90–90–90 targets. Global AIDS update 2017. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2017.
34. Chiappini E, Galli L, Gabiano C, Gattinara GC, Martino A, Scolfaro C et al. Preventable zidovudine overdose during postnatal prophylaxis in healthy children born to HIV-1-positive mothers. AIDS. 2008;22:316–7.
35. Livshits Z, Lee S, Hoffman RS, Nelson LS, Esteban-Cruciani N. Zidovudine (AZT) overdose in a healthy newborn receiving postnatal prophylaxis. Clin Toxicol. 2011;49:747–9.
36. Turkova A, Collins IJ, Lyons A, Ramos Amador JT, Rojo Conejo P, Ene L et al. Use and safety of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) in children and adolescents with HIV in paediatric cohorts in the European Union. 9th International Workshop on HIV Pediatrics, Paris, France, 21–22 July 2017.
37. Judd A, Duong T, Galli L, Goetghebuer T, Ene L, Julian AN et al. Post-licensing safety of fosamprenavir in HIV-infected children in Europe. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2013;23:321–5.
38. European Pregnancy and Paediatric HIV Cohort Collaboration (EPPICC) study group in EuroCoord. Safety of darunavir and atazanavir in HIV-infected children in Europe and Thailand. Antivir Ther. 2015;21:353–8.
39. European Pregnancy and Paediatric HIV Cohort Collaboration (EPPICC) study group in EuroCoord. Safety of zidovudine/lamivudine scored tablets in children with HIV infection in Europe and Thailand. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2017;73:463–8.
40. Lyons A, Collins I, Chappell E, Tostevin A, Thompson L, Ramos-Amador J et al. Safety of etravirine (ETR) in young people with HIV: patient characteristics, adverse events and discontinuation. 9th International Workshop on HIV Pediatrics, Paris, France, 21–22 July 2017.
41. Slogrove AL, Archary M, Cotton MF. Optimizing research methods to understand HIV-exposed uninfected infant and child morbidity: report of the Second HEU Infant and Child Workshop. Front Immunol. 2016;7:576.
42. Bamford A, Turkova A, Lyall H, Foster C, Klein N, Bastiaans D et al. Paediatric European Network for Treatment of AIDS (PENTA) guidelines for treatment of paediatric HIV-1 infection 2015: optimizing health in preparation for adult life. HIV Med. 2018;19:e1–42.
43. Kjaer J, Ledergerber B. HIV cohort collaborations: proposal for harmonization of data exchange. Antivir Ther. 2004;9:631–3.
44. Collins IJ, Collaborative Initiative for Paediatric HIV Education and Research (CIPHER) Cohort Collaboration Duration of First-line Team. Switching to second-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in HIV-infected children: a CIPHER cohort collaboration global analysis. 21st International AIDS Conference, Durban, South Africa, 18–22 July 2016.
45. Hussain S, Khayat A, Tolaymat A, Rathore MH. Nephrotoxicity in a child with perinatal HIV on tenofovir, didanosine and lopinavir/ritonavir. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;21:1034–6.
46. Hawkins S, Ball C. Adverse events experienced by three children taking tenofovir and didanosine in combination. HIV Med. 2007;8:411.
47. Vigano A, Bedogni G, Manfredini V, Giacomet V, Cerini C, di Nello F et al. Long-term renal safety of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in vertically HIV-infected children, adolescents and young adults: a 60-month follow-up study. Clin Drug Investig. 2011;31:407–15.
48. Judd A, Boyd KL, Stohr W, Dunn D, Butler K, Lyall H et al. Effect of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate on risk of renal abnormality in HIV-1-infected children on antiretroviral therapy: a nested case-control study. AIDS. 2010;24:525–34.
49. Della Negra M, de Carvalho AP, de Aquino MZ, da Silva MT, Pinto J, White K et al. A randomized study of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in treatment-experienced HIV-1 infected adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:469–73.
50. Okonkwo RI, Weidmann AE, Effa EE. Renal and bone adverse effects of a tenofovir-based regimen in the treatment of HIV-infected children: a systematic review. Drug Saf. 2016;39:209–18.
51. D:A:D Study Group. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients enrolled in the D:A:D study: a multi-cohort collaboration. Lancet. 2008;371:1417–26.
52. ARROW Trial Team. Routine versus clinically driven laboratory monitoring and first-line antiretroviral therapy strategies in African children with HIV (ARROW): a 5-year open-label randomised factorial trial. Lancet. 2013;381:1391–403.
53. Nahirya-Ntege P, Musiime V, Naidoo B, Bakeera-Kitaka S, Nathoo K, Munderi P et al. Low incidence of abacavir hypersensitivity reaction among African children initiating antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:535–7.
54. Jesson J, Dahourou DL, Renaud F, Penazzato M, Leroy V. Adverse events associated with abacavir use in HIV-infected children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet HIV. 2016;3:e64–75.
55. Zash RM, Williams PL, Sibiude J, Lyall H, Kakkar F. Surveillance monitoring for safety of in utero antiretroviral therapy exposures: current strategies and challenges. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016;15:1501–13.
56. Zash R, Jacobson DL, Diseko M, Mayondi G, Mmalane M, Essex M et al. Comparative safety of antiretroviral treatment regimens in pregnancy. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171:e172222.
57. Dheda M. Decentralized HIV/AIDS pharmacovigilance in South Africa: Mpumalanga as pilot province for national roll-out. J AIDS HIV Res. 2013;5:357–65.
58. Williams PL, Hazra R, Van Dyke RB, Yildirim C, Crain MJ, Seage GR 3rd et al. Antiretroviral exposure during pregnancy and adverse outcomes in HIV-exposed uninfected infants and children using a trigger-based design. AIDS. 2016;30:133–44.
59. Hleyhel M, Goujon S, Delteil C, Vasiljevic A, Luzi S, Stephan J-L et al. Risk of cancer in children exposed to didanosine in utero. AIDS. 2016;30:1245–56.
60. Calmy A, Hirschel B, Cooper DA, Carr A. Clinical update: adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy. Lancet. 2007;370:12–4.
61. Dubrocq G, Rakhmanina N, Phelps BR. Challenges and opportunities in the development of HIV medications in pediatric patients. Paediatr Drugs. 2017;19:91–8.
Conclusion
1. Penazzato M, Gnanashanmugam D, Rojo P, Lallemant M, Lewis LL, Rocchi F et al. Optimizing research to speed up availability of pediatric antiretroviral drugs and formulations. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:1597–1603.
2. Penazzato M, Lewis L, Watkins M, Prabhu V, Pascual F, Auton M, Kreft W et al. Shortening the decade-long gap between adult and paediatric drug formulations: a new framework based on the HIV experience in low- and middle-income countries. J Int AIDS Soc. 2018;21(Suppl. 1).
3. UNAIDS and United States President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). Start free, stay free, AIDS free: a super-fast-track framework for ending AIDS in children, adolescents and young women by 2020. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2018 (https://free.unaids.org, accessed 22 May 2018).